Engine parts are joined by several methods. Wherever a joint may have to be dismantled there is little alternative to drilling holes and fitting bolts and nuts, the latter being of one of the patented `stop’ types that cannot work loose in service. Engine accessories – even some large items such as gearboxes and oil tanks – and bleed connections, fuel injectors, cover plates, and many other items are retained by similar stop nuts held (like all others, with the correct torque) on studs welded to the engine casings. Many engines contain numerous countersunk screws. These always have cross-type heads, such as the Parker-Kalon series. Locking wire, used by the mile in the Second World War, is now seldom seen.
Where engine parts will not need to be separated, the almost universal answer is some form of aerospace welding or bonding; rivets are rare. As in so many processes, human welders have tended to be replaced by computer control. Once the software has been perfected, this should mean absolutely repeatable joints without the shrinkage or distortion that was previously hard to avoid. Among the more traditional forms, used to join sheet metal work are spot and seam resistance welding. In spot welding, twin electrodes, usually of copper, are brought lightly together at each joint and a large DC current passed to cause intense local heating; almost at once the desired temperature is reached, the current is switched off and the electrode pressure increased to make the joint. In seam welding, the parts are moved past copper wheels which by the same process make a continuous joint.
Traditional manual arc or gas welding is almost extinct in engine production, but considerable use is made of tungsten inert-gas, TIG welding. The electrode torch, which forms a DC cathode, is made of consumable thoriated tungsten and fitted with a `gas lens’ which shields the weld with inert argon, even though in many cases the entire operation takes place in an atmosphere of high-purity argon. To avoid the workpiece cracking, the arc is started without torch contact and the finishing current is tapered off in a programmed manner.
E-beam repairs
Electron-beam welding (EBW) faintly resembles an electron microscope, in that a beam of electrons is focussed magnetically on the target in an evacuated (vacuum) chamber. It differs in the much higher power of the beam, the weld being made by the heat generated by the electron impacts. Under computer control, perfect welds can be made between dissimilar materials with virtually no distortion or shrinkage. Electron beam welding is the preferred method for such tasks as joining the turbine nozzle vanes to their rings, or the discs, rings, and spacers of a compressor rotor, or attaching the HP turbine stub shaft (made of stable bearing steel) to the expandable material mating with the turbine disc.
Plasma-arc welding differs from traditional arc welding in that the arc carries with it ionized gas aimed at the weld through a small nozzle. The gas travels at several thousand mph at a temperature of 12,000-18,000°C to produce a weld that is much finer, more accurate, faster and distortion-free, and needs less filler material. Plasma welding does not need a vacuum chamber (though the weld is protected from oxidation by inert gas) and can be done manually, so it is handy for irregular joints, especially where only a few welds must be made and automated operation is not justified.
Diffusion bonding (DB) is a seemingly simple process in which metal parts are heated in a vacuum furnace to the diffusion point, just below the melting temperature.
At this point the metal molecules are mobile, so that when the parts are brought together under high pressure the molecules migrate in both directions across what had been the interface. In effect, the two parts become a single piece of metal, even though the two components might be of dissimilar metals such as a high-nickel alloy joined to a cobalt-based alloy. As there is no local heating, there is no stress or distortion. Diffusion bonding is often combined with super plastic forming SPF, using balloon-like inflation by argon between hot dies to produce startlingly complex engine and nacelle parts which would otherwise have to be made by joining numerous smaller components. An alloy particularly amenable to SPF/DB is 6A1-4V (6 per cent aluminum, 4 per cent vanadium) titanium.
Aero industry repair by laser-beam welding.
Of course, the ubiquitous laser is also capable of making superior welds, and laser-beam welding (LBW) is rapidly gaining in popularity. One reason is that it offers all the advantages of EBW without the time-consuming need to `pump down’ a vacuum chamber, so it saves time in series production. Typically, a high power (eg, 2 kW) continuous COZ (carbondioxide) laser is used, under open-shop conditions.
Inertia bonding is an economical way of joining circular parts such as shafts and discs. One of the parts is spun at high speed whilst attached to a heavy flywheel. At an exact predetermined speed it is suddenly forced under high pressure against the mating surface, which is fixed. The instantaneous friction heat and pressure bonds the parts without melting, to give a joint with outstanding physical properties, though finish machining will be needed to remove a ring of metal squeezed outwards at the joint.
aviation-database.com has lots of resources for the aircraft industry. The web is a vast source of information. Aviation-database collects the industry into one huge database of contacts. Aero Industry Repair and Welding is an article giving technical guidance and you can click on the logo top or bottom to return to the searchable database giving contact details of companies worldwide providing this service.
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Aerospace Welding and Aero Industry Repair
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SCR Based Welder Repair
Transformer based MIG Welders often use SCR’s (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) as the means of controlling the weld output current. An electronic circuit determines when, and for how long current is allowed to flow to the weld output terminals. This is accomplished by triggering the SCR’s with a PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) gating signal. The SCR’s are switched on during the positive half cycle of the secondary voltage that is produced by the Main transformer assembly. This occurs at a 50 or 60Hz rate for a single phase Mains Input operated Welder. When the Welder is used with a three phase input supply the Sine wave cuts the Transformer primary winding three times as often. A well designed SCR based Welder will take advantage of this to effectively increase the DC switching rate.
The application of the Gating signal turns the SCR on for a period of time leading up to the zero crossing point of the incoming Sine Wave. At the Zero Crossing Point, the SCR turns off. Due to this, it is imperative that the firing or timing of the SCR’s is synchronous with the incoming Supply voltage. The longer the waveforms ‘on time’, the greater the Weld output current. In other words, to achieve a greater Weld output current, the duty cycle (‘On time’ verses ‘Off time’) of the PWM gating signal must be increased.
Having said this it is also important to note that most Welders of this type will have a large Inductor (or Reactor) after the SCR switching circuit. The inductor provides energy to the Welding Arc during the time that the SCR’s are switched off.
High current SCR’s are usually packaged in a Stud Mount or Press-Pak (Hockey Puck) configuration. Stud Mounted SCR’s are bolted directly into sheet metal work, which constitutes its Heatsink assembly. Hockey puck devices are mounted between two compression plates (this constitutes its Heatsink assembly). Hockey puck SCR’s must be compressed in order to operate. This is an internal safety feature that helps ensure good contact with the Heatsink, and avoids thermal conductivity issues. Thermal Issues account for a large percentage of SCR failures. This can be attributed to poor mechanical connections to the Heatsink assembly and inefficient cooling arrangements. Factors to consider are: Cooling Fan operation, the use of Thermal Conductivity Pads/ Heatsink compound between SCR and Heatsink, and Torque settings for Hockey Puck devices. High Weld output currents amplify any problems in these areas.
Other SCR failures can be attributed to the occurrence of ESD events (Electro-Static Discharge) and EOS (Electrical Over Stress). Also, insufficient voltage snubbing due to degraded components in the Snubber network is another factor for consideration
David Willcocks is an Electronics professional, and Technical writer. For more information on Automated Test Equipment please visit http://www.imagineATE.com.
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Types of Industrial Fasteners and How to Know Their Standards
Industrial packaging industry is growing at a fast pace with the invention of new equipments like stretch wrapping systems and industrial fasteners. Companies manufacturing and selling different types of products that need to be packaged are able to save a great deal of time by installing these equipments for packing goods. Recently there has been news that a web directory for fasteners is going to be launched. The website will contain the addresses of all industrial packaging equipments sellers in the US. If such a website becomes a reality it will help buyers of packaging save time and money by readily providing information about various sellers of packaging goods.
Industrial fasteners are commonly used and are available in various forms. Some of the popular fasteners used in household are nuts, bolts, screws, rivets, pipe plugs, pins, studs etc. But in industries several types of fasteners are used for holding heavy materials that are used in the manufacturing process.
Industrial fasteners come in different categories depending on the type of object they are supposed to fasten. Hence, fasteners that you will come across in the aviation industry will be completely different from that of the shipping industry.
When purchasing fasteners it is important to take note of the type of materials used for manufacturing them. Titanium fasteners are used by companies that use equipments which come in contact with water several times a day. This increases the possibility of corrosion of the material used to make the equipment. Since the fastener is made of corrosion resistant metal it will protect the equipment from corrosion. On the other hand a company that uses heavy materials can go for iron fasteners as they are capable of carrying heavy loads. Brass fasteners are quite popular and are used in wooden furniture. They are available with different coatings such as nickel plating, natural plating etc.
Before buying such equipments you must check with the seller whether they confirm to international standards. In case of American equipments there are three different types of standardization.
• ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
• SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers)
• ISO (International Organization for Standards)
In case of online sellers it becomes very easy to check such information as they generally provide the specifications of their products in their website. Industrial Packaging Supplies (IPS) is a quality online merchant selling a variety of industrial fasteners. There website provides detailed information about their products. The seller also provides services like repair, replacement and installation.
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Powder Actuated Tool Basics
You may know them as a stud gun, a Hilti or a Ramset. Powder actuated tools are actually a form of a gun, using gun powder to drive nails into concrete and steel. Many think of these tools for fastening 2 x 4 material to concrete, perhaps in finishing off your basement, but they have a very broad use in all facets of the building trades.
Uses in the trades
Framers use them to shoot lumber and metal studs to concrete and steel. Foundation contractors and waterproofing contractors shoot foam on to foundations. Electricians use the tools to fasten junction boxes, emt straps and to suspend light fixtures. Many mechanical contractors use a special gun that will shoot a 3/8″ threaded stud into concrete.
Fastening to concrete
Shooting a fastener in to concrete is the fastest way to mount anything to concrete or steel, just load the pin, pull the trigger and your done. There are many different types and sizes of fasteners to choose from depending on what you are mounting.
When fastening into concrete, you can expect the pin to penetrate the concrete any where from 3/4″ to 1″. Keeping that in mind, to fasten a 2 x 4 to concrete take the actual thickness of the 2 x 4 (1 1/2″) and add 3/4″ to 1″. This would bring you to a 2 1/2″ pin. Please note, some codes require a 3″ pin. Ramset, Hilti, Powers and Simpson make tools that will fit the bill nicely.
Fastening to steel
To fasten into steel, keep in mind the pin will go in about 1/2″ and stop. Therefore the same 2 x 4 (1 1/2″ actual) would use a 2″ pin. If you try to use a longer pin, the pin will go in about 1/2″ then stop and the pin will either bend or break. Many people are hesitant about shooting into steel, but most times it is easier to shoot than concrete, just a lot louder! Some tools will do a better job than others, again, stick with a higher end Ramset or Hilti for this application.
Power Load Selection
As for the loads or “bullets” , the loads are color coded and numbered to identify power level. Starting from lowest to highest you have gray, brown, green, yellow, red and purple. The rule of thumb when choosing a load is start low and work your way up. The trick is to use just enough power to set the fastener properly without over driving the tool. Some tools have power adjustments allowing you to use just one color and adjust down.
Tool Selection
What is the right tool for your job? If you just want to do your own basement, you can probably get away with using a single shot tool that you actuate with a hammer, available at any big box store. If you are a contractor, remember, you get what you pay for. Don’t buy the cheapest tool you can find. Some of the less expensive tools are actually considered disposable, with no replacement parts available. Again the names Ramset, Hilti, Powers and Simpson lead the way. Some of the consumer grade tools like a the Remington you find in big box stores will get you through a small remodel, but many of these are considered through away tools.
Consider what the majority of your work is. If you are a general contractor, you may want a good brand name middle of the road semi-automatic tool that can be serviced. If you are a commercial drywall contractor you may opt of a good quality single shot too or even consider stepping up to a fully automatic gas tool or a tool with a magazine.
An electrician may consider a power adjustable tool that can offer him more flexibility. If you do a lot of over head work, consider a tool that works well on an extension pole. If you hang a lot of 3/8″ rod, check out a 3/8″ stud gun.
In conclusion…
Powder actuated tools are a useful tool for most any trade. If you fasten to concrete or steel on a regular basis, consider adding them to your tool box.
Find the complete Ramset Tools [http://constructionfastening.com/ramset tools.html] along with pins and loads for Hilti, Powers and Simpson tools at constructionfastening.com